个别思想家的哲学观念与其社会见解和社会实践的关系,同我们所期望的那种哲学与实践的有机联系往往不相一致。在性格或气质与哲学信仰之间并不存在必然的心理联系;我们没有理由假定同样一套因果关系既决定他的个人哲学又决定他的个人实践,或者互为因果。在哲学家个人的社会政治行动与他们哲学之间并不存在着一般联系,而是在社会运动和哲学学说之间可以找到重要的联系。这种联系是历史性的,主要不是心理上的或个人的。一个学说或一种理论之付诸社会应用,可以和这一学说或理论的个别作者所企图或赞成的那些用途截然不同。观念和学说在历史上所产生的效果,很少能用个人意图解释。即便有这样情形,哲学信仰的出现是为了适应一种社会形势或者促进一种利益,但有时无疑的是,哲学到后来才影响社会的发展,因此如果不涉及社会发展,就难以解释一个文化的历史和实际生活的若干重要方面。某些集团的哲学观点和他们的社会实践发生联系并且影响社会实践,这就更加便于创造某些时期的历史,而不是说,在哲学理论和实践之间经常具有一种确定的联系。与纯科学观点芣同的哲学观点……从价值立场来阐释存在,价值可能并不根源于利益,但当价值发生冲突时总要包含或者关连到利益。任何掌握政权的阶级或集团的利益就在于掩盖利益冲突,并发展和加强那些使社会礼法显得自然、合理和不可或缺的态度、习惯和信念。 The philosophical ideas of individual thinkers and their social opinions and social practices are often out of line with the kind of philosophy and practice we expect. There is no necessary psychological connection between character or temperament and philosophical beliefs; there is no reason to suppose that the same set of causal relations determines both his personal philosophy and his personal practice, or vice versa. There is no general connection between the philosophical individual’s social and political actions and their philosophy, but rather an important connection between social movements and philosophical theories. This connection is historic and not primarily psychological or personal. The application of a doctrine or theory to social applications can be quite different from those intended or endorsed by the individual author of the doctrine or theory. The effects historically produced by ideas and doctrines are seldom explained by personal intent. Even so, the emergence of philosophical beliefs is to adapt to a social situation or to promote an interest, but it is beyond doubt that philosophy later affected social development, so it would be difficult to explain a culture without social development Some important aspects of history and real life. The philosophical perspectives of certain groups that relate to their social practices and influence social practice make it easier to create history of some period than to say that there is often a definite connection between philosophical theory and practice. Philosophical point of view in purely scientific terms ... From the value standpoint, the value may not be rooted in profit, but always contains or is linked to profit when the value conflicts. The interests of any class or group that seizes power lie in masking conflicts of interest and in developing and strengthening attitudes, habits and beliefs that make social courtesies seem natural, reasonable and indispensable.